Luke’s gospel Essay Example for Free

Luke’s gospel Essay Each of the four evangelists had a particular slant to their writing:- One could say that Mark was a brief account of the preaching of Peter. Johns Gospel was written that you may come to believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that through believing you may have life in his name (John 20:31). Matthew was written for Jews to show how Jesus teaching related to their laws and traditions. And Luke wrote for those who had become disciples and wanted to ground their faith in historical fact. Luke is described in the title of Jean-Francois Racine’s 20008 article as ‘Luke: Storyteller, Interpreter and Evangelist. ’ Despite his skills as both narrator and interpreter of events, he would have perhaps felt most comfortable with the last of these – Evangelist. In his gospel he makes many theological points – he was concerned for instance that his readers knew exactly who the person of Jesus was not as Alan Richardson says ‘a docetic apparition’ i. e the belief , later considered heretical, that Christ merely appeared to have a human body, an idea that Luke opposes with his birth narratives and the genealogy in chapter 3. Nor is he ‘a pagan theophany’ i. e. the mere visible, but not material appearance of God . This reality of God in history can be seen in the reading of this passage. Jesus is not just reading an old prophecy. He is laying claim to it. It is not to be interpreted as ’The Spirit of the Lord ‘ is upon some unknown person, some future long promised Saviour, but upon Jesus, the boy they had all seen grow up. It is perhaps no wonder the congregation found this difficult to accept. God in man, yet not someone who would perform miracles just to prove a point as is made clear in the description of the temptations in the wilderness, yet who is prepared to reveal signs that can be interpreted. The bringing of sight to the blind was in particular something associated with ‘the servant of the Lord’ according to Richardson and would be seen as a \Messianic sign. It is clear from the words of Isaiah that he chose that he saw the miracles he was able to perform as signs of the coming of the kingdom of God ‘the day of the Lord predicted by Isaiah. He makes this clear when he follows his reading by making the astounding claim ‘Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing’. After the prologue ( Luke 1 verse 1 to 4 ) Luke’s Gospel can be divided most obviously into 5 main sections in a frame work that more or less follows that set out by Mark, but which includes many events recorded solely by Luke:- †¢ Births of John and Jesus, Luke chapters 1 v 5 and 2, and unique to Luke †¢ Galilean Ministry, ( this section would also include his baptism and genealogy). The genealogy too is unique, for although Matthew includes such a list they vary. This section concludes at Chapter 9 v 20 with Peter’s confession when he acknowledges Jesus as ‘God’s Messiah’. †¢ The parable of the Good Samaritan in chapter 10 begins the next section wherein Jesus gradually moves towards Jerusalem. †¢ Luke 19 v 28 marks Jesus’ entry into the city of Jerusalem and a re-joining of Luke’s narrative with that contained in Mark’s shorter gospel. Although there are accounts of earlier confrontations, in particular with the Pharisees this section marks a period of greater confrontation , as when he drove out the merchants in the temple in Luke 19 v 45-48 and of course later with the Sanhedrin and the Roman rulers. †¢ The passion narratives can be said to start from Chapter 22 with the feast of unleavened bread and the preparations for the last supper with the disciples. They conclude with the ascension, described again in Acts 1.. Jesus at the point described in 4 v 14 -30 has returned to his home town of Nazareth in Galilee. It is a passage that place Christ right at the centre of the story of salvation. According to Conzelmann and Buswell in the section of their 1992 book entitled ‘The centre of history’ Luke ‘deliberately takes the â€Å"today† which is expressed in this passage as belonging to the past, and builds up the picture of Jesus whole career on the basis of this historical interpretation. ’ â€Å"Today† might not actually be included in the passage in most translations, but is still implied as the passage is in the present tense and in the final line as in the Message paraphrase ‘This is God’s year to act. ’ In the Amplified Bible the passage reads :- The Spirit of the Lord [is] upon Me, because He has anointed Me [the Anointed One, the Messiah] to preach the good news (the Gospel) to the poor; He has sent Me to announce release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to send forth as delivered those who are oppressed [who are downtrodden, bruised, crushed, and broken down by calamity], To proclaim the accepted and acceptable year of the Lord [the day when salvation and the free favors of God profusely abound. Headings in the Good News Bible for this passage are ‘Jesus begins his work in Galilee’ and ‘Jesus is rejected at Nazareth’ The local people would have heard about the miracles don e in other places in the region. They must have been thinking ‘If he has done so much in other villages, how much more will he do here’ Instead he quotes to them a well known proverb :- Surely you will quote this proverb to me: Physician, heal yourself! Do here in your hometown what we have heard that you did in Capernaum. I tell you the truth, he continued, no prophet is accepted in his hometown. He goes on to expound upon the way in which Gentiles could have faith, giving the examples of the widow of Zarephath who had been helped by Elijah, and also Naaman the Syrian, both of whose stories would have been familiar to the congregation. The passage has been proceeded by the birth narratives, the account of the early visit to Jerusalem, the sudden jump to the preaching of his forerunner John . His baptism is recorded briefly and then comes the genealogy which traces Jesus’ ancestry back to God The temptation in the wilderness is described as immediately preceding the events of 4 v 14 – 30. So we have Jesus, a unique being, ‘Today in the town of David a Saviour has been born to you; he is the Christ, the Lord. ’ And , according to the words of Simeon, not just a Saviour for the Jewish people, but also ‘Salvation which you have prepared in the sight of all people, a light for revelation to the Gentiles and for glory to your people Israel. ’ It had been traditionally expected that Elijah would return before the coming of the Messiah as is pointed out by Luke by his inclusion of the prophecy from Isaiah ‘A voice of one calling in the desert, prepare the way for the Lord†¦.. the crooked roads shall become straight , the rough ways smooth, and all mankind will see God’s salvation. ’ So once again the image provoked is of a universality to the message of salvation. John the Baptist is an Elijah type figure, especially if one reads Mark’s description of him , ‘John wore clothing made of camel’s hair, with a leather belt round his waist, and he ate locusts and wild honey. ’ The baptism was a public event , but according to Luke the message from God to his son was a personal one, and it is not clear in this passage whether others heard the voice ‘You are my son whom I love; with you I am well pleased. ’ , a parallel passage to the one in Mark , but in John it is clear that John the Baptist at least was a witness, ‘John gave this testimony :† I saw the Spirit come down from heaven as a dove and remain on him. †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Matthew gives a slightly different version of events, which seems to imply that God was publically acknowledging Jesus as his son. ‘A voice from heaven said â€Å"This is my son, whom I love, with him I am well pleased. †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ So all is ready – Jesus is established in history as being God on earth, the special, unique person , prophesied of old as the means of the world’s salvation – now he can begin. Which brings us to the Nazareth synagogue scene which marks , as far as Luke is concerned, the beginning of the public ministry of Jesus. How far does passage set the agenda for the ministry of Jesus? According to Hans Conzelmann and Geoffrey Buswell in the 1982 book ‘TheTheology of St Luke’ ‘It is significant that according to Luke Jesus is not led by the Spirit, but himself acts in the Spirit. First of all there is the obvious contrast between ‘He taught in their synagogues and everyone praised him’ which refers in a general way to the synagogues of various Galilean towns, and the reaction in his home town of Nazareth, presumably before a congregation of those who knew him well :-‘Isn’t this Jesus, Joseph’s son? ’ and then when he expounded on the passage, pointing out how Elijah had not been sent to a Jewish home in the time of famine, but to help the Gentile widow of Zarephath in Sidon, this provoked an extremely violent negative reaction ‘All the people in the synagogue were furious when they heard this’ so much so that they were apparently prepared to actually kill him according to verse 28 and 29. Why such a violent reaction? Israel had long been expecting her Messiah. He had been prophesied from Genesis through to Malachi, but in both negative and positive ways ‘ I will put enmity between you and the woman ,and between your offspring and hers’ and ‘Suddenly the Lord you are seeking will come to his temple; the messenger of the covenant; whom you desire, will come, says the Lord Almighty. ’ However the people were expecting a warrior, a physical king, someone who would free them from the yoke of the Romans not a village boy, perhaps even an illegitimate one people have long memories. The passage Jesus was reading was from the scroll of Isaiah, chapter 61 . He bought the reading to an end in what, for the congregation, would be considered ‘the wrong place’. i. e half way through what is in modern Bibles , verse 2 of the chapter. He includes the phrase ‘to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour’ but omits the one after it ‘the day of vengeance of our God. ’ These people wanted a powerful saviour who would rid them of Roman oppression. Isaiah’s prophecy goes on to talk about a double portion for the Israelites who would feed on the wealth of nations. Preaching good news to the poor was fine, but it wouldn’t send the Romans back to Rome. Don Swager in his commentary says :- Jesus praise for outsiders caused them offence because they were blind-sighted to Gods mercy and plan of redemption for all nations. This sudden change of mood from the previous verses in which Luke records that he found acceptance where ever he went is a pivotal point in the gospel record. It exemplifies what will come and so can be said to set the agenda – for instance on Palm Sunday we are told that a large crowd ‘began to thank God and praise him in loud voices for all the great things that they had seen. ’ Shouting â€Å"Blessed is the king who comes in the name of the Lord! Peace in heaven and glory in the highest! This is followed immediately by a plea from the Pharisees that Jesus call upon his followers to be quiet. Presumably they feared a negative reaction on the part of the authorities to someone being hailed as king. It isn’t just the words used. Spreading clothing along his way was known to be the way to greet a king. An example of this would be 2 Kings 9 v 13, a passage that would have been known when to many in the crowd , where, and had anointed him, after Elisha had told his that God wanted him to be king Jehu told his officers that Elisha had said :- Here is what he told me: This is what the LORD says: I anoint you king over Israel. ’They quickly took their cloaks and spread them under him on the bare steps. Then they blew the trumpet and shouted, Jehu is king! But the words were from what are called the ‘songs of ascent’ i. e a normal part of the Passover celebrations and sang every year by pilgrims arriving in Jerusalem for the feast. So any Roman observers would have probably seen nothing unusual, and wouldn’t have been familiar with the passage from 2nd Kings. As with so many other passages this reaction of the Pharisees is unique to Luke. But these people were aware to some extent at least of the miracle that Jesus had performed in Galilee and the resurrection of Lazarus, recorded by John the evangelist, though not by Luke, had only just occurred, John places the event perhaps a week earlier, and it would certainly have been the latest news, so they at least were aware of the special person that Jesus was. These same people, described by Luke as disciples would have course still been in Jerusalem at the end of the week and some at least must have been in the crowd which Luke describes:- With one voice they cried out, Away with this man! Release Barabbas to us! †¦.. But they kept shouting, Crucify him! Crucify him! †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. But with loud shouts they insistently demanded that he be crucified, and their shouts prevailed. 24 So Pilate decided to grant their demand. This constant split in opinion and changes in opinion , the general misunderstanding about what was Jesus’ true ministry as recorded first in Luke 4, continues throughout the passages between then and the trial narrative. In Luke 5 for instance there is the story of the call of Levi ( Matthew) after which there was a feast in Levi’s house. Again it is the Pharisees who complain ‘But the Pharisees and the teachers of the law who belonged to their sect complained to his disciples, Why do you eat and drink with tax collectors and sinners? He tries to explain :- â€Å"It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. 32 I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance. † The Good News Bible translate this verse as ‘I have not come to call respectable people to repent, but outcasts. ’ – which links back to the Isaiah passage read by Jesus in his home synagogue:- He has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, That passage of course begins ‘the Spirit of the Lord is on me’ and of Jesus this was literally true if the account of the descent of the Holy Spirit upon him at the time of his baptism is to be believed. It was acknowledge by Luke at the very beginning of the Galilean ministry :-â€Å" Jesus returned to Galilee in the power of the Spirit, and news about him spread through the whole countryside. † The passage, which comes from Isaiah 61 would not have originally have had the chapter and verse breaks with which we are so familiar. The section immediately before it is headed in the New International Version ‘The Glory of Zion’, and begins ‘Arise, shine, for your light has come, and the glory of the Lord rises upon you’ . Oswald Chambers commenting upon his book ‘My Utmost for his Highest’ notes that ‘We have to make the first step’†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢when getting in contact with God in order to find out what he wants’. This is a long positive passage which includes references to God appearing and nations ( i. e. the Gentiles ) coming to his light and which concludes with the words ‘I am the Lord ; in its time I will do this swiftly.. ’. Jesus , although he read only a few lines, would have been very aware of this wider context , and so would many of his readers. This ministry to the outsiders of society would continue and is more strongly evident in this gospel perhaps than in others as for instance in chapter 15, known for its parables of the lost which begins with tax collectors and others on the edges of society coming to Jesus an event that brings an immediate reaction from the religious leaders Right at the beginning of his story Luke had stressed the presence, power and working of the Holy Spirit, something that it was generally felt had departed from Israel. The angel answered, The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. So the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God. This emphasis upon the Spirit continues. It is evidenced for instance in the raising from death to life of the widow’s son, only one of many healings which took place and which Luke summarizes. At that very time Jesus cured many who had diseases, sicknesses and evil spirits, and gave sight to many who were blind. 22 So he replied to the messengers, Go back and report to John what you have seen and heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is proclaimed to the poor. Even such miraculous events could be misinterpreted, such were the misunderstandings surrounding Jesus, who he was, and what his purpose was. In the gospel’s11th chapter, Jesus, now on his way towards Jerusalem, drives out a demon. :- Jesus was driving out a demon that was mute. When the demon left, the man who had been mute spoke, and the crowd was amazed. 15 But some of them said, By Beelzebul, the prince of demons, he is driving out demons. This empowering by the Spirit was not restricted to Jesus alone, Anticipating opposition ahead he tells his followers they need not fear :- When you are brought before synagogues, rulers and authorities, do not worry about how you will defend yourselves or what you will say, for the Holy Spirit will teach you at that time what you should say. Another aspect of the passage is ‘the binding up of the broken hearted’. This could be seen as referring to those who mourn for whatever reason as in Matthew 5 v 4 ‘Blessed are those who mourn for they shall be comforted. ’ as Jesus describes life in the coming kingdom of God. The Message Bible has this as :- You’re blessed when you get your inside world – your mind and heart – put right . Then you can see God in the outside world. Luke is always concerned with mankind fully realizing who Christ is and his purpose and the message might be. The letter to Philippians in chapter 2 contains a quotation from an early Christian hymn which explains this – that Christ humbled himself by coming to earth in order eventually that man will be restored in his relationship with God – a relationship broken in the early chapters of Genesis when man disobeyed what he knew to be the will of God. Luke portrays the purpose of Christ as restoring this broken relationship. In 4 v 43 Jesus says :- I must preach the good news of the Kingdom to God to the other towns also, because that is why I was sent. Luke also shows the universality of the task in the call of the disciples as when he responds to Peter in 5 v 10, ‘Don’t be afraid; from now on you will catch men’ told . When the seventy two disciples, who had been sent out as recorded in chapter 10, they had been told ‘Heal the sick who are there and tell them the kingdom of God is near you’ They returned full of joy because ‘Lord, even the devils submit to us in your name! ’ This idea that the spread of the gospel is the task and responsibility of the whole church, and they will be empowered by the Holy Spirit to carry it out is of course continued in Luke’s second volume , the Book of Acts, for example in chapter 2 v 4 :- All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them. This idea of restoring relationships is shown repeatedly even in the healing miracles, where the emphasis is on the forgiveness of sins rather than on any physical healing that took place as with the healing of the paralytic man brought to his by friends in 5 v 17 -26. The man does receive healing, but even before that in verse 20 we read :- ‘Friend , your sins are forgiven’ something that the Jewish faith believed was only brought about by the offering of sacrifices. The result in this case was not only one man being forgiven, but a whole crowd of people seeing God in power and praising him for it. The theme continues even on the cross when the thief pleads with the dying Messiah :- ‘Jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom’. Jesus answered him, ‘I tell you the truth, today you will be with me in paradise. When John records Jesus final words, ‘It is finished’ it is a sign that not only is his earthly life drawing to an end, but that of the task which he had taken upon himself. Peterson, in the Message Bible translates this as :-‘It’s done – complete’. A phrase that might be translated as ‘It is accomplished’ as indeed it was if one accepted that by his sacrificial death Jesus is able to restore the relationship between God and his salvation. Luke’s version of the gospel story cannot be seen in isolation, and should be read alongside complementary passages, i. e. the other gospels. It is stated in John 3 v 14 – 18 a:- The son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone who believes in him may have eternal life. For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only son that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him. Whoever believes in him is not condemned. References Bible, Good News Version, Today’s English Version, Collins/Fontana London 1976 Bible, New International Version, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1988 Chambers, O. ,My Utmost for His Highest, Marshall, Morgan and Scott, reprinted 1975 Peterson,E. Bible , The Message, Navpress, Colorado Springs, 2002. Richardson,A. Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament, SCM Press, London 1958 Electronic Sources Amplified Bible, retrieved 6th April 2009 http://www. biblegateway. com/passage/? search=Luke%204;version=45; Brow, R. , Lukes Gospel Commentary, Retrieved 6th April 2009 http://www. brow. on. ca/Books/Luke/Luke01. htm Conzelmann, H. and Buswell, G. ‘The Theology of St Luke’ Faber and Faber, London 1992 , Questia on Line Library, retrieved 7th April 2009 http://www. questia. com/read/87968381? title=The%20Theology%20of%20St. %20Luke Racine, J. Luke: Storyteller, Interpreter and Evangelist , Theological Studies, Volume 69, 2008, Questia Online Library, retrieved 7th April 2009 http://www. questia. com/read/5025752564? title=Luke%3a%20Storyteller%2c%20Interpreter%2c%20Evangelist Swager, D. The Gospel of Luke, A Commentary and Meditation retrieved 6th April 2009 http://www. rc. net/wcc/readings/luke146. htm

Spanish And French Monarchial Beliefs - The Escorial And Versailles :: essays research papers

The palace of Versailles was built by Louis XIV of France (1643-1715), and the Escorial was built by Philip II of Spain (1556-1598). By examining the aerial and frontal facades of these two palaces, it may be seen that there were many similarities and differences between the two kings’ perception and practice of monarchy. Each king set his own goals for his life, and concluded as to how a monarch ought to behave. Both Louis XIV and Philip II had religious duties to pay attention to, organized the distribution of power in their respective kingdoms, communicated with other countries and entities through war and diplomacy, raised militaries, and made plans for the expansion of their own beliefs, thoughts and practices. Aside from these aspects of the two kings’ beliefs and practices of monarchy, the architecture of their palaces reflected their ideals, or personal beliefs, and the interpretation made by the painters of the palaces reflects the attitudes of the two kings t oward life. The role of the king to the public during the reigns of Louis XIV of France and Philip II of Spain were not predetermined, so each king created for himself what he thought monarchy ought to be. Louis XIV and Philip II were both absolutists, and believed that they should be the supreme rulers of France and Spain, respectively. However, Louis XIV did not want to be a national symbol serving no legitimate purpose. He wished to control the military, economy, foreign affairs, and the administration of the kingdom and of justice. He believed that the king of France should be the best that France has to offer- being served by even the most powerful lords of France. Conversely, Philip II thought of himself as Catholic first, and king of Spain second. Opposite to Louis XIV, Philip II preferred to sit in the Escorial and pray, pour over records, and live more as a monk than as Louis XIV’s conception of a king. Philip II never wanted to take much of an active part in the administration o f his kingdom, except for the times when he wanted to use some of his various powers. However, after he had used it for a while (waging war, raising taxes, etceteras) he would let it lay dormant and return to his documents. Nor did Philip II ever wish to control most of the Spanish economy. The parts that he did control were ones that directly affected himself or his revenues, so vital in order to keep his army of immense proportions.

Plot Analysis of a Rose for Emily

â€Å"In this world, nothing is certain but death and taxes. † This quote by Benjamin Franklin is a mirror to Emily’s story as it begins with her death and then the reader is abruptly brought into the tax remission she received after the death of her father. This interesting yet confusing vignette is about a girl named Emily Grierson and her inconsiderate relation with the town, a man she loved, Homer Baron, and her Father. For Readers of Faulkner, it is truly apparent that his stories do not follow the pattern of the conventional beginning to the end of the story. This method of disorderly sequence of events along with the descriptive style tends to lead this story as if we are realistically present in the town. It also keeps the reader attentive for the upcoming rising action present throughout the story. This leaves the reader questioning or predicting the actual outcome, he/she interprets it well after all is being read. It is a southern gothic styled story, a tragic story told by an anonymous narrator that speaks on behalf of the town’s people, but he/she is not related to the protagonist of the story, Emily. Emily throughout the story is perceived as an object to the reader rather than a character because her side of the story is not personally expressed by her. This type of narration grasps the readers’ level of curiosity as they are not given access into her perception about her life. In the story, two essential elements of life have been readily repeated throughout; taxes and death . Death being the main theme was not accepted or comprehended by Emily’s mindset. This story explains the taxes submission issues faced my Emily. The rest of the story revolves around hatred and death in Emily’s chaotic life from which she was once guarded from the rest of the cruel world. The story begins with the death of Miss Emily; readers are presented to Miss Emily’s fight and struggle, with her antagonist time, through the situation she is living in. As it seems the protagonist, Emily tries to pause the time around her to save her loved ones, trying to avoid certainty, death, and thus fails to do so. Miss Emily appearance represents a past era, an era in which she masks her privacy in, declining the changing time being passed by. She was raised by her father that is why she was encapsulated by silence, inability to believe in reality and inability to happy life; she was the result of her environment. The most minute yet meaningful sentence described in the whole story is in Section II, â€Å"So she vanquished them, horse and foot, just as she had vanquished their fathers thirty years before about the smell. † (Faulkner 22) . The use of the definite article mentioned in the sentence abruptly brings about a sense of suspense. It merely shows that it was not just â€Å"a smell† but â€Å"the smell†. As brought by the narrator it is justified that the town’s people were familiar of such odor occurring in Emily’s house before. The narrator grants a significance to the smell because ‘the smell’ would had never put such an impact as an â€Å"a† smell would have. When Miss Emily refused to give her father’s dead body away, it started to decompose, spreading a pungent odor; same odor was present once again. As for a reader it foreshadows events to come. The way Faulkner presented the story and designed the structure, interpersonal conflicts increased between Emily and the society. The town is just not a setting but is a character in the story. It is the setting of an old era that held tight to old beliefs and moral values of the South. Social class in the story holds great significance. Faulkner when describes the character â€Å"Tobe†, points out the status setting of that era. Tobe was disrespected and was considered a person with no values throughout. For example, Judge Stevens called him as, â€Å"†¦that nigger of hers†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Faulkner, p. 22); showing racism present during that time frame. They disgraced the minorities and disrespected their physical existence and social status. People had pride over unnecessary ephemeral high standards that displayed discrimination and inequality. In the story as cited previously, social class was significant in demonstrating dehumanization of blacks but also demonstrating differences in the rich and the poor. Miss Emily is judged for a having romance with a low class, poor citizen of that society, Homer baron. The following sentence affiliates towns’ people response towards Emily’s one and only intimate relationship with Homer. Poor Emily†, the whispering began. â€Å"Do you suppose it’s really so? †, they said to one another, (Faulkner, p. 23). The townspeople felt pity upon her relationship with Homer, as in the eyes of the townspeople a barrier of status was set up, only the deserving or the affluent ones were allowed. Homer was a labor whereas; Miss Emily belonged to a respected rich family. Dist inguishing their class differences, Homer was way beyond Miss Emily’s league, an image set in the eyes of the townspeople. Moreover secrets are kept throughout the story, plotted as such so they are left to the reader to discover them. For example, Faulkner uses the above-mentioned technique in the following line, â€Å"†¦so they were not surprised when the smell developed† (Faulkner, p. 22). The prediction here is that the pungent yet familiar smell developed in Emily’s house due to decaying of a dead body; which for sure is kept as a secret until the end. Emily’s further more surreptitious actions can be observed through the following lines said by the narrator, â€Å"We did not say she was crazy then. We believed she had to do that. We remembered all the young men her father had driven away, and we knew that with nothing left, she would have to cling to that which had robbed her, as people will† (Faulkner, p. 22). The disguise truth here is that Miss Emily was indeed crazy, and the upcoming horror is that she could be psychotic enough to repeat the same action, holding on to Homer’s dead body. Barron's fate is linked in this passage as Faulkner provides the reader with a hint of death. The themes of class, race and status are widespread throughout the story, Faulkner repeatedly addresses those themes. † The town of Jefferson is isolated by race, extremely class and social status conscious people because people disliked and abhorred a women of a high class walking with a low social standing man. In closure â€Å"A Rose for Emily† is a captivating short story of a lady who refuses to adopt the changing world and order of society around her. Her denial of certainty and death gives us an understanding of depth of emotions that a girl encounters throughout her life. It is felt that these disturbed actions would not have taken place if she was placed in a different time and setting. She gave us the impression of a silently killed character that was only physically living. Even though we could not pass through her door we still encountered much information about how and why she was. Faulkner flawlessly points out the broader ideas, including the complexities of northern and southern places at that time frame, complexities of an altering world order, disappearing lands of courtesy and nobility, and rigid social responsibilities of a women.

Architecture Timeline of Important Historic Periods

When did Western architecture begin? Long before the magnificent structures of ancient Greece and Rome, humans were designing and constructing. The period known as the Classical Era grew from ideas and construction techniques that evolved centuries and eons apart in distant locations. This review illustrates how each new movement builds on the one before. Although our timeline lists dates related mostly to American architecture, historic periods do not start and stop at precise points on a map or a calendar. Periods and styles flow together, sometimes merging contradictory ideas, sometimes inventing new approaches, and often re-awakening and re-inventing older movements. Dates are always approximate — architecture is a fluid art. 11,600 B.C. to 3,500 B.C. — Prehistoric Times Stonehenge in Amesbury, United Kingdom. Jason Hawkes/Getty Images Archaeologists dig prehistory. Gà ¶bekli Tepe in present day Turkey is a good example of archaeological architecture. Before recorded history, humans constructed earthen mounds, stone circles, megaliths, and structures that often puzzle modern-day archaeologists. Prehistoric architecture includes monumental structures such as Stonehenge, cliff dwellings in the Americas, and thatch and mud structures lost to time. The dawn of architecture is found in these structures. Prehistoric builders moved earth and stone into geometric forms, creating our earliest human-made formations. We dont know why primitive people began building geometric structures. Archaeologists can only guess that prehistoric people looked to the heavens to imitate the sun and the moon, using that circular shape in their creations of earth mounds and monolithic henges. Many fine examples of well-preserved prehistoric architecture are found in southern England. Stonehenge in Amesbury, United Kingdom is a well-known example of the prehistoric stone circle. Nearby Silbury Hill, also in Wiltshire, is the largest man-made, prehistoric earthen mound in Europe. At 30 meters high and 160 meters wide, the gravel mound is layers of soil, mud, and grass, with dug pits and tunnels of chalk and clay. Completed in the late Neolithic period, approximately 2,400 BC, its architects were a Neolithic civilization in Britain. The prehistoric sites in southern Britain (Stonehenge, Avebury, and associated sites) are collectively a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The design, position, and inter-relationship of the monuments and sites, according to UNESCO, are evidence of a wealthy and highly organized prehistoric society able to impose its concepts on the environment. To some, the ability to change the environment is key for a structure to be called architecture. Prehistoric structures are sometimes considered the birth of architecture. If nothing else, primitive structures certainly raise the question, what is architecture? Why does the circle dominate mans earliest architecture? It is the shape of the sun and the moon, the first shape humans realized to be significant to their lives. The duo of architecture and geometry goes way back in time and may be the source of what humans find beautiful even today. 3,050 B.C. to 900 B.C. — Ancient Egypt The Pyramid of Khafre (Chephren) in Giza, Egypt. Lansbricae (Luis Leclere)/Getty Images (cropped) In ancient Egypt, powerful rulers constructed monumental pyramids, temples, and shrines. Far from primitive, enormous structures such as the Pyramids of Giza were feats of engineering capable of reaching great heights. Scholars have delineated the periods of history in ancient Egypt. Wood was not widely available in the arid Egyptian landscape. Houses in ancient Egypt were made with blocks of sun-baked mud. Flooding of the Nile River and the ravages of time destroyed most of these ancient homes. Much of what we know about ancient Egypt is based on great temples and tombs, which were made with granite and limestone and decorated with hieroglyphics, carvings, and brightly colored frescoes. The ancient Egyptians didnt use mortar, so the stones were carefully cut to fit together. The pyramid form was a marvel of engineering that allowed ancient Egyptians to build enormous structures. The development of the pyramid form allowed Egyptians to build enormous tombs for their kings. The sloping walls could reach great heights because their weight was supported by the wide pyramid base. An innovative Egyptian named Imhotep is said to have designed one of the earliest of the massive stone monuments, the Step Pyramid of Djoser (2,667 B.C. to 2,648 B.C.). Builders in ancient Egypt didnt use load-bearing arches. Instead, columns were placed close together to support the heavy stone entablature above. Brightly painted and elaborately carved, the columns often mimicked palms, papyrus plants, and other plant forms. Over the centuries, at least thirty distinct column styles evolved. As the Roman Empire occupied these lands, both Persian and Egyptian columns have influenced Western architecture. Archaeological discoveries in Egypt reawakened an interest in the ancient temples and monuments. Egyptian Revival architecture became fashionable during the 1800s. In the early 1900s, the discovery of King Tuts tomb stirred a fascination for Egyptian artifacts and the rise of Art Deco architecture. 850 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Classical The Pantheon, A.D. 126, Rome, Italy. Werner Forman Archive/Heritage Images/Getty Images (cropped) Classical architecture refers to the style and design of buildings in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Classical architecture shaped our approach to building in Western colonies around the world. From the rise of ancient Greece until the fall of the Roman empire, great buildings were constructed according to precise rules. The Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius, who lived during first century B.C., believed that builders should use mathematical principles when constructing temples. For without symmetry and proportion no temple can have a regular plan, Vitruvius wrote in his famous treatise De Architectura, or Ten Books on Architecture. In his writings, Vitruvius introduced the Classical orders, which defined column styles and entablature designs used in Classical architecture. The earliest Classical orders were Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Although we combine this architectural era and call it Classical, historians have described these three Classical periods: 700 to 323 B.C. — Greek. The Doric column was first developed in Greece and it was used for great temples, including the famous Parthenon in Athens. Simple Ionic columns were used for smaller temples and building interiors. 323 to 146 B.C. — Hellenistic. When Greece was at the height of its power in Europe and Asia, the empire built elaborate temples and secular buildings with Ionic and Corinthian columns. The Hellenistic period ended with conquests by the Roman Empire. 44 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Roman. The Romans borrowed heavily from the earlier Greek and Hellenistic styles, but their buildings were more highly ornamented. They used Corinthian and composite style columns along with decorative brackets. The invention of concrete allowed the Romans to build arches, vaults, and domes. Famous examples of Roman architecture include the Roman Colosseum and the Pantheon in Rome. Much of this ancient architecture is in ruins or partially rebuilt. Virtual reality programs like Romereborn.org attempt to digitally recreate the environment of this important civilization. 527 to 565 — Byzantine Church of Hagia Eirene in the First Courtyard of the TopkapÄ ± Palace, Istanbul, Turkey. Salvator Barki/Getty Images (cropped) After Constantine moved the capital of the Roman empire to Byzantium (now called Istanbul in Turkey) in A.D. 330, Roman architecture evolved into a graceful, classically-inspired style that used brick instead of stone, domed roofs, elaborate mosaics, and classical forms. Emperor Justinian (527 to 565) led the way. Eastern and Western traditions combined in the sacred buildings of the Byzantine period. Buildings were designed with a central dome that eventually rose to new heights by using engineering practices refined in the Middle East. This era of architectural history was transitional and  transformational. 800 to 1200 — Romanesque Romanesque Architecture of the Basilica of St. Sernin (1070-1120) in Toulouse, France. Anger O./AgenceImages courtesy Getty Images As Rome spread across Europe, heavier, stocky Romanesque architecture with rounded arches emerged. Churches and castles of the early Medieval period were constructed with thick walls and heavy piers. Even as the Roman Empire faded, Roman ideas reached far across Europe. Built between 1070 and 1120, the  Basilica of St. Sernin in Toulouse, France is a good example of this transitional architecture, with a Byzantine-domed apse and an added Gothic-like steeple. The floor plan is that of the Latin cross, Gothic-like again, with a high alter and tower at the cross intersection. Constructed of stone and brick, St. Sernin is on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela. 1100 to 1450 — Gothic The Gothic Cathedral of Notre Dame de Chartres, France. Alessandro Vannini/Getty Images (cropped) Early in the 12th century, new ways of building meant that cathedrals and other large buildings could soar to new heights. Gothic architecture became characterized by the elements that supported taller, more graceful architecture — innovations such as pointed arches, flying buttresses, and ribbed vaulting. In addition, elaborate stained glass could take the place of walls that no longer were used to support high ceilings. Gargoyles and other sculpting enabled practical and decorative functions. Many of the worlds most well-known sacred places are from this period in architectural history, including Chartres Cathedral and Paris Notre Dame Cathedral in France and Dublins St. Patricks Cathedral and Adare Friary in Ireland. Gothic architecture began mainly in France where builders began to adapt the earlier Romanesque style. Builders were also influenced by the pointed arches and elaborate stonework of Moorish architecture in Spain. One of the earliest Gothic buildings was the ambulatory of the abbey of St. Denis in France, built between 1140 and 1144. Originally, Gothic architecture was known as the French Style. During the Renaissance, after the French Style had fallen out of fashion, artisans mocked it. They coined the word Gothic to suggest that French Style buildings were the crude work of German (Goth) barbarians. Although the label wasnt accurate, the name Gothic remained. While builders were creating the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe, painters and sculptors in northern Italy were breaking away from rigid medieval styles and laying the foundation for the Renaissance. Art historians call the period between 1200 to 1400 the Early Renaissance or the Proto-Renaissance of art history. Fascination for medieval Gothic architecture was reawakened in the 19th and 20th centuries. Architects in Europe and the United States designed great buildings and private homes that imitated the cathedrals of medieval Europe. If a building looks Gothic and has Gothic elements and characteristics, but it was built in the 1800s or later, its style is Gothic Revival. 1400 to 1600 — Renaissance Villa Rotonda (Villa Almerico-Capra), near Venice, Italy, 1566-1590, Andrea Palladio. Massimo Maria Canevarolo via Wikimedia Commons, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0) A return to Classical ideas ushered an age of awakening in Italy, France, and England. During the Renaissance era architects and builders were inspired by the carefully proportioned buildings of ancient Greece and Rome.  Italian Renaissance master Andrea Palladio helped awaken a passion for classical architecture when he designed beautiful, highly symmetrical villas such as Villa Rotonda near Venice, Italy. More than 1,500 years after the Roman architect Vitruvius wrote his important book, the Renaissance architect Giacomo da Vignola outlined Vitruviuss ideas. Published in 1563, Vignolas The Five Orders of Architecture became a guide for builders throughout western Europe. In 1570 Andrea Palladio used the new technology of movable type to publish I Quattro Libri dell Architettura, or The Four Books of Architecture. In this book, Palladio showed how Classical rules could be used not just for grand temples but also for private villas. Palladios ideas did not imitate the Classical order of architecture but his designs were in the manner of ancient designs. The work of the Renaissance masters spread across Europe, and long after the era ended, architects in the Western world would find inspiration in the beautifully proportioned architecture of the period. In the United States its descendant designs have been called neoclassical. 1600 to 1830 — Baroque The Baroque Palace of Versailles in France. Loop Images Tiara Anggamulia/Getty Images (cropped) Early in the 1600s, an elaborate new architectural style lavished buildings. What became known as Baroque was characterized by complex shapes, extravagant ornaments, opulent paintings, and bold contrasts. In Italy, the Baroque style is reflected in opulent and dramatic churches with irregular shapes and extravagant ornamentation. In France, the highly ornamented Baroque style combines with Classical restraint. Russian aristocrats were impressed by the Palace of Versailles, France and incorporated Baroque ideas in the building of St. Petersburg. Elements of the elaborate Baroque style are found throughout Europe. Architecture was only one expression of the Baroque style. In music, famous names included Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi. In the art world, Caravaggio, Bernini, Rubens, Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Velà ¡zquez are remembered. Famous inventors and scientists of the day include Blaise Pascal and Isaac Newton. 1650 to 1790 — Rococo Catherine Palace Near Saint Petersburg, Russia. Saravut Eksuwan/Getty Images During the last phase of the Baroque period, builders constructed graceful white buildings with sweeping curves. Rococo art and architecture is characterized by elegant decorative designs with scrolls, vines, shell-shapes, and delicate geometric patterns. Rococo architects applied Baroque ideas with a lighter, more graceful touch. In fact, some historians suggest that Rococo is simply a later phase of the Baroque period. Architects of this period include the great Bavarian stucco masters like Dominikus Zimmermann, whose  1750 Pilgrimage Church of Wies is a UNESCO World Heritage site. 1730 to 1925 — Neoclassicism The U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. Architect of the Capitol By the 1700s, European architects were turning away from elaborate Baroque and Rococo styles in favor of restrained Neoclassical approaches. Orderly, symmetrical Neoclassical architecture reflected the intellectual awakening among the middle and upper classes in Europe during the period historians often call the Enlightenment. Ornate Baroque and Rococo styles fell out of favor as architects for a growing middle class reacted to and rejected the opulence of the ruling class. French and American revolutions returned design to Classical ideals  Ã¢â‚¬â€ including equality and democracy — emblematic of the civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome. A keen interest in ideas of Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio inspired a return of Classical shapes in Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. These buildings were proportioned according to the classical orders with details borrowed from ancient Greece and Rome. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, the newly-formed United States drew upon Classical ideals to construct grand government buildings and an array of smaller, private homes. 1890 to 1914 — Art Nouveau The 1910 Hà ´tel Lutetia in Paris, France. Justin Lorget/chesnot/Corbis via Getty Images Known as the New Style in France, Art Nouveau was first expressed in fabrics and graphic design. The style spread to architecture and furniture in the 1890s as a revolt against industrialization turned peoples attention to the natural forms and personal craftsmanship of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Art Nouveau buildings often have asymmetrical shapes, arches, and decorative Japanese-like surfaces with curved, plant-like designs and mosaics. The period is often confused with Art Deco, which has an entirely different visual look and philosophical origin. Note that the name Art Nouveau is French, but the philosophy  Ã¢â‚¬â€ to some extent spread by the ideas of William Morris and the writings of John Ruskin — gave rise to similar movements throughout Europe. In Germany it was called Jugendstil; in Austria it was Sezessionsstil; in Spain it was Modernismo, which predicts or event begins the modern era. The works of Spanish architect Antoni Gaudà ­ (1852-1926) are said to be influenced by Art Nouveau or Modernismo, and Gaudi is often called one of the first modernist architects. 1895 to 1925 — Beaux Arts The Paris Opera by Beaux Arts Architect Charles Garnier. Francisco Andrade/Getty Images (cropped) Also known as Beaux Arts Classicism, Academic Classicism, or Classical Revival, Beaux Arts architecture is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design, grandiosity, and elaborate ornamentation. Combining classical Greek and Roman architecture with Renaissance ideas, Beaux Arts architecture was a favored style for grand public buildings and opulent mansions. 1905 to 1930 — Neo-Gothic The Neo-Gothic 1924 Tribune Tower in Chicago. Glowimage/Getty Images (cropped) In the early 20th century, medieval Gothic ideas were applied to modern buildings, both private homes and the new type of architecture called skyscrapers. Gothic Revival was a Victorian style inspired by Gothic cathedrals and other medieval architecture.  Gothic Revival home design began in the United Kingdom in the 1700s when Sir Horace Walpole decided to remodel his home, Strawberry Hill. In the early 20th century, Gothic Revival ideas were applied to modern skyscrapers, which are often called Neo-Gothic. Neo-Gothic skyscrapers often have strong vertical lines and a sense of great height; arched and pointed windows with decorative tracery; gargoyles and other medieval carvings; and pinnacles. The 1924 Chicago Tribune Tower is a good example of Neo-Gothic architecture. The architects Raymond Hood and John Howells were selected over many other architects to design the building. Their Neo-Gothic design may have appealed to the judges because it reflected a conservative (some critics said regressive) approach. The facade of the Tribune Tower is studded with rocks collected from great buildings around the world. Other Neo-Gothic buildings include the Cass Gilbert design for the Woolworth Building in New York City. 1925 to 1937 — Art Deco The Art Deco Chrysler Building in New York City. CreativeDream/Getty Images With their sleek forms and ziggurat designs, Art Deco architecture embraced both the machine age and ancient times. Zigzag patterns and vertical lines create dramatic effect on jazz-age, Art Deco buildings. Interestingly, many Art Deco motifs were inspired by the architecture of ancient Egypt. The Art Deco style evolved from many sources. The austere shapes of the modernist Bauhaus School and streamlined styling of modern technology combined with patterns and icons taken from the Far East, classical Greece and Rome, Africa, ancient Egypt and the Middle East, India, and Mayan and Aztec cultures. Art Deco buildings have many of these features: cubic forms; ziggurat, terraced pyramid shapes with each story smaller than the one below it; complex groupings of rectangles or trapezoids; bands of color; zigzag designs like lightening bolts; strong sense of line; and the illusion of pillars. By the 1930s, Art Deco evolved into a more simplified style known as Streamlined Moderne, or Art Moderne. The emphasis was on sleek, curving forms and long horizontal lines. These buildings did not feature zigzag or colorful designs found on earlier Art Deco architecture. Some of the most famous art deco buildings have become tourist destinations in New York City — the Empire State Building and Radio City Music Hall may be the most famous. The 1930 Chrysler Building in New York City was one of the first buildings composed of stainless steel over a large exposed surface. The architect, William Van Alen, drew inspiration from machine technology for the ornamental details on the Chrysler Building: There are eagle hood ornaments, hubcaps, and abstract images of cars. 1900 to Present — Modernist Styles De La Warr Pavilion, 1935, Bexhill on Sea, East Sussex, United Kingdom. Peter Thompson Heritage Images/Getty Images The 20th and 21st centuries have seen dramatic changes and astonishing diversity. Modernist styles have come and gone  Ã¢â‚¬â€ and continue to evolve. Modern-day trends include Art Moderne and the Bauhaus school coined by Walter Gropius, Deconstructivism, Formalism, Brutalism, and Structuralism. Modernism is not just another style  Ã¢â‚¬â€ it presents a new way of thinking. Modernist architecture emphasizes function. It attempts to provide for specific needs rather than imitate nature. The roots of Modernism may be found in the work of Berthold Luberkin (1901-1990), a Russian architect who settled in London and founded a group called Tecton. The Tecton architects believed in applying scientific, analytical methods to design. Their stark buildings ran counter to expectations and often seemed to defy gravity. The expressionistic work of the Polish-born German architect Erich Mendelsohn (1887-1953) also furthered the modernist movement. Mendelsohn and Russian-born English architect Serge Chermayeff (1900-1996) won the competition to design the De La Warr Pavilion in Britain. The 1935 seaside public hall has been called Streamline Moderne and International, but it most certainly is one of the first modernist buildings to be constructed and restored, maintaining its original beauty over the years. Modernist architecture can express a number of stylistic ideas, including Expressionism and Structuralism. In the later decades of the twentieth century, designers rebelled against the rational Modernism and a variety of Postmodern styles evolved. Modernist architecture generally has little or no ornamentation and is prefabricated or has factory-made parts. The design emphasizes function and the man-made construction materials are usually glass, metal, and concrete. Philosophically, modern architects rebel against traditional styles. For examples of Modernism in architecture, see works by Rem Koolhaas, I.M. Pei, Le Corbusier, Philip Johnson, and Mies van der Rohe. 1972 to Present — Postmodernism Postmodern Architecture at 220 Celebration Place, Celebration, Florida. Jackie Craven A reaction against the Modernist approaches gave rise to new buildings that re-invented historical details and familiar motifs. Look closely at these architectural movements and you are likely to find ideas that date back to classical and ancient times. Postmodern architecture evolved from the modernist movement, yet contradicts many of the modernist ideas. Combining new ideas with traditional forms, postmodernist buildings may startle, surprise, and even amuse. Familiar shapes and details are used in unexpected ways. Buildings may incorporate symbols to make a statement or simply to delight the viewer. Philip Johnsons ATT Headquarters is often cited as an example of postmodernism. Like many buildings in the International Style, the skyscraper has a sleek, classical facade. At the top, however, is an oversized Chippendale pediment. Johnsons design for the Town Hall in Celebration, Florida is also playfully over-the-top with columns in front of a public building. Well-known postmodern architects include Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown; Michael Graves; and the playful Philip Johnson, known for making fun of Modernism. The key ideas of Postmodernism are set forth in two important books by Robert Venturi. In his groundbreaking 1966 book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, Venturi challenged modernism and celebrated the mix of historic styles in great cities such as Rome. Learning from Las Vegas, subtitled The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form, became a postmodernist classic when Venturi called the vulgar billboards of the Vegas Strip emblems for a new architecture. Published in 1972, the book was written by Robert Venturi, Steven Izenour, and Denise Scott Brown. 1997 to Present — Neo-Modernism and Parametricism Zaha Hadids Heydar Aliyev Centre, 2012, Baku, Azerbaijan. Christopher Lee/Getty Images Throughout history, home designs have been influenced by the architecture du jour. In the not far off future, as computer costs come down and construction companies change their methods, homeowners and builders will be able to create fantastic designs. Some call todays architecture Neo-Modernism. Some call it Parametricism, but the name for computer-driven design is up for grabs. How did Neo-Modernism begin? Perhaps with Frank Gehrys sculpted designs, especially the success of the 1997 Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain. Maybe it began with architects who experimented with Binary Large Objects — BLOB architecture. But you might say that free-form design dates back to prehistoric times. Just look at Moshe Safdies 2011 Marina Bay Sands Resort in Singapore: It looks just like Stonehenge. Prehistoric Stonehenge (left) and Moshe Safdies 2011 Marina Bay Sands Resort in Singapore (right). Left: Grant Faint / Right: photo by william cho Sources History and Research: Silbury Hill, English Heritage Foundation, http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/silbury-hill/history-and-research/; Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, United Nations, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/373 Additional photo credits: Tribune Tower, Jon Arnold/Getty Images; Stonehenge / Marina Bay Sands Resort, Images (cropped) by Archive Photos/Archive Photos Collection/Getty Images (left) and AT Photography/Moment Collection/Getty Images (right)